Final Project, Written Portion

The modern state of Algeria is a nation on the continent of Africa and contains within it a diverse range of people, places, and events in history.  This work will focus on the explaining the geography, the non-written sources, religion, natural resources, first contact, missions, and change in politics and national identity in Algeria.

            Algeria is unique in that it borders the Mediterranean

Sea, but also contains within it a large portion of the Sahara desert. Because of this, Algeria is one of the largest states in Africa with 919,600 square miles.[1] Approximately 40 percent of the population lives within four cities located on the coastal regions.[2] Toward the coast, the weather consists of a temperate climate conducive to agriculture. Father south, the Sahara Desert is the biggest land obstacle to the rest of the continent. Further, the Tell Mountains are an important geographic location in the North. There is little area for agricultural endeavors due to the massive size of the Sahara Desert, but the coastal areas are conducive to olives and grapes and other produce. In all, Algeria has four different climate zones: coastal region, inland hills and plains, continental climate of high plateaus, and the desert climate of the Sahara.

            The non-written sources of Algeria come largely from the Roman Empire, although there is evidence of cave paintings from pre-history Algeria. James Nickerson says, “ "From the point of view of the historian these paintings... are of the utmost value, illuminating the past of the Sahara and going one step further towards the elucidation of the mystery of when, if not why, the region changed from fertility to the sterile sands which have been known through all recorded time"[3] (Nickerson, 6-7). There are numerous Roman era statues found in Algeria that speak to the influence of Rome.[4] There is a sarcophagus depicting the seven miracles of Jesus composed of marble, which demonstrates Algeria’s heavy dependence on the Christian faith early in its history.[5] Further, there are many Islamic artifacts that speak to the influence of Islam in later centuries.

            The religious beliefs of Algeria are split. In pre-history, Algeria was probably pagan.[6] During the age of Constantine and the Christian Roman Emperors, Algeria was a Christian nation. The famed Augustine of Hippo was from North Africa where modern day Algeria now sits. It would continue to be a center for Christianity into the 5^th, 6^th, and 7^th centuries. In the latter 7th century, Islam would have a huge influence and would eventually become the dominant religious beliefs. Islam was a religious belief that was perpetuated by Muslim traders and Bedouin traders from Saudi Arabia. During the 7^th century, these traders found themselves spreading religious beliefs as far away as the Sahara Desert and thus the Islamic religious took strong root in Algeria. Islamic kingdoms have dominated the coastal areas ever since.

            Being located on a major desert, Algeria is not an agriculturally powerhouse, but it does possess some economic advantages. For example, Algeria’s relative position to Europe makes it ideal to selling its massive oil reserves.[7] In addition, Algeria has a vast amount of mineral deposits that make it a rich target for European nations as well.

            The first contact between Algeria and western powers was during the Roman era as well. Carthage was a city that threatened the trading prospects of Rome. One of the first interactions between the two states was a treaty regarding trade.[8] Later in the century, Rome was so threatened it risked a war with the civilization. During the “Punic Wars,” Rome went to battle with Algeria in an offensive that would last for decades in three separate wars. During the First Punic War, Rome made Carthage a tribute state in a victory. The Second saw Hannibal almost reach Rome on his famed ascension of the Alps on the backs of elephants. The Third war was Carthage destroyed and the Carthaginians put under the solid dominion of the republic. Later in Algeria’s history, the Berber’s were an Islamic kingdom that dealt in dubious practices of piracy. Pirates would raid European and American ships heading into the Mediterranean and demanded tribute from them. This sparked the Barbary Pirate Wars with the budding United States at the beginning of the 19^th century.

            Christian missionaries were present in Algeria long ago during the Roman era as well. These missionaries were there to spread the Gospel and Carthage soon became a center for Christianity. In later years, the Muslims dominated and largely suppressed evangelical mission efforts.

            The changes in the political arena for Algeria are massive. Algeria eventually became a French colony and served the French well for many of years. During the aftermath of World War II, Charles de Gaulle was the leader of the French. He wanted to release Algiers from French domination, but quickly rescinded. Instead, a war broke out.[9] The war saw a massive Islamic army face off against the French.. It was largely characterized by guerilla warfare. In the end, de Gaulle capitulated and Algeria became a nation in 1962.[10]

            Today, Algeria is a country that is still trying to find its identity.  Since their independence, they have faltered in a few ways, particularly regarding Islamic extremism. From 1991-2002, the country was embroiled in a civil war concerning radical Islamic groups. It has stabilized since then and now has a booming tourism economy. With Europe at its doorstep, it is an important trading partner with European powers and is gaining in prestige in the modern world.

Bibliography

Basset, Rene. Moorish Literature. New York, NY: P.F. Collier & Son, 1901.

Boissier, Gaston. Roman Africa: Archaeological Walks in Algeria and Tunis. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1899. Accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002137746;view=1up;seq=7.

Evans, Martin. Algeria: France's Undeclared War (Making of the Modern World). New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Garland, Robert. Wandering Greeks: The Ancient Greek Diaspora from the Age of Homer to the Death of Alexander the Great. Princeton: US: Princeton University Press, 2014.

National Museum of Antiquities. “National Museum of Antiquities.” Accessed September 9, 2016.http://www.musee-antiquites.art.dz/?action=accueil&lang=fr.

Nickerson, James. Africa: From Pre-Roman Times to the Present. New York: Devin-Adair Company, 1961. Accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008918313;view=1up;seq=10.

Nyrop, Richard. Area Handbook for Algeria. Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1972. Accessed September 2, 2016. http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE|A119451344&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&userGroup=vic_liberty&authCount=1#.

Saad, Mohammed A., and Margaret Majumdar. Transition and Development in Algeria. Bristol: Intellect Ltd., 2012.

Sueur, James D. Le. Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the Decolonization of Algeria by James D. Le Sueur (2005-12-01). University of Nebraska Press, 1524.

The World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York City: World Almanac Books, 2004. Accessed September 2, 2016.http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE|A119451344&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&userGroup=vic_liberty&authCount=1#.

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[1] The World Almanac and Book of Facts (New York City: World Almanac Books, 2004), under “Algeria,” accessed October 22, 2016, http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE|A119451344&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&userGroup=vic_liberty&authCount=1#..

[2] Richard Nyrop, Area Handbook for Algeria (Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1972), 83.

[3] James Nickerson, Africa: From Pre-Roman Times to the Present (New York: Devin-Adair Company, 1961), 6-7, accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008918313;view=1up;seq=10.

[4] Gaston Boisser, Africa: Archaeological Walks in Algeria and Tunis (New YorkL G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899), 33-34, accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002137746;view=1up;seq=7.

[5] National Museum of Antiquities. “National Museum of Antiquities.” Accessed September 9, 2016. http://www.musee-antiquites.art.dz/?action=accueil&lang=fr.

[6] Rene Basset, Moorish Literature (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1901), xvi-xvii.

[7] Mohammed Saad and Margaret Majumdar, Transition and Development in Algeria (Bristol: Intellect Ltd., 2012), under “chapter 12.”

[8] Robert Garland, Wandering Greeks: The Ancient Greek Diaspora from the Age of Homer to the Death of Alexander the Great (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2014), 43.

[9] Martin Evans, Algeria: France's Undeclared War (Making of the Modern World) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 261.

[10] James D. Le Sueur, Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics During the Decolonization of Algeria by James D. Le Sueur (2005-12-01) (University of Nebraska Press, 1524), 256.

First Contact

The coast of North Africa, particularly where modern day Algeria is, was the obsession with early antiquity. The coast of North Africa was a hot spot for agriculture. Further, the Carthaginian civilization was booming in Carthage and threatened Roman interests in the island of Sicily. These factors set up the first contact between the Western world and North Africa.

Possibly the very first contacts between the Western world and North Africa are lost to history. There is evidence of a possible settlement in Cyrene which is from Greek origin: "A fourth-century inscription relating to the establishment of the settlement at Cyrene in North Africa, which allegedly preserves the original wording of an original decree of the seventh century, required one of every two brothers to relocate from Thera to the new foundation..." (Garland, 43). However, the true lasting contact between North Africa and the Western world was with the great Roman Republic.

Before the First Punic Wars, Rome signed three treaties with the Carthaginians which proved to be the first lasting contact with the Romans. The main contention with which the treaties were concerned with had to do with trade: "So the treaty of 508 BC was precisely drawn up to delimit the sphere of commercial activities of the Romans, who were excluded from trading along the African coast west of Carthage" (Fields, 58-59). The Carthaginians were then a powerful entity on the Mediterranean and tried to exercise economic control over the budding Roman Republic. These treaties were some of the first interactions between the two nations.

The influence of these first talks were dramatic. Eventually, the trading disputes continued to blow up. This would go on to a series of wars called the "Punic Wars" which saw the Romans flex their international muscle and military prestige. The First Punic War was merely a prolonged warning using military force; the second was much more dramatic. The Carthaginian General Hannibal gathered a force that threatened Rome herself. He was defeated. During the Third Punic War, Rome sieged Carthage itself and saw her destruction. From then on, Carthage, and North Africa, was a colony of Rome.

Bibliography

Garland, Robert. Wandering Greeks : The Ancient Greek Diaspora from the Age of Homer to the Death of Alexander the Great. Princeton, US: Princeton University Press, 2014. Accessed October 6, 2016. ProQuest ebrary.

Fields, Nic. Roman Conquests : North Africa. Barnsley, US: Pen and Sword, 2011. Accessed October 6, 2016. ProQuest ebrary.

Natural Resources

Algeria is located in North Africa and while being the second largest country in Africa, finds itself in the precarious position of being located on the edge of the Sahara Desert. Economically, the are advantages and disadvantages of such a location. The discussion of Algeria's main exports tie directly into its position geographically.

While part of Algeria is located on the coast, most of the country is a desert. For this reason, Algeria is not an agricultural powerhouse. One commentator said, "There is not enough potentially arable land remaining in Algeria to equate demand and supply by simply expanding cropland. Possibilities for new development are limited to about 250,000 acres; irrigation offers, additionally, more efficient use of less than half that amount" (Holm, 1). In addition, agriculture used to be Algeria's dominant sector but quickly became handicapped after French colonization ended (Metz, 152). Wine production, olives, wheat and barely represent some of Algeria's main staple crops. While some agriculture does exist in Algeria, the major exports of Algeria are in minerals and oil.

One source states that the major industries in Algeria are: oil, natural gas, light industries, and food processing (Algeria, 1). Oil is probably one of the biggest attractions for investors in Algeria due to its relative distance to Europe: "Algeria is very well positioned on the supply side to meet a healthy portion of this growth in demand [for oil]. As the second largest country in Africa and the tenth largest in the world, it has the advantages of an abundance of hydrocarbons and its proximity to Southern Europe" (Majumdar, Chapter 12). Hydrocarbons represented an average of just over 23 percent of Algeria's GDP in 1990 (Metz, 145). In addition, Algeria's mineral deposits are vast. The main minerals Algeria exports are: iron, phosphate, mercury, and zinc (Metz, 148). One estimate of iron ore found in Algeria could be as large as two billion tons. Natural gas also constitutes a vast part of the Algerian economy. In 1992, it was estimated that Algeria's 3,200 billion cubic meters of recoverable natural gas could last up to sixty years (Metz, 147).

Much of Algeria's economic prospects have changed drastically in the years since French colonization ended. As discussed, Algeria was somewhat crippled agriculturally after the French departed. Algeria is still positioned well in the world for international trade as it became its own country, however. The proximity of Europe ensures that Algeria will continue to funnel resources North to satisfy the appetites of Europeans.

Bibliography

"Algeria." In The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 596. New York: World Almanac Books, 2001. General OneFile (accessed September 25, 2016). http://p2048-ezproxy.liberty.edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&sw=w&u=vic_liberty&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA73404917&sid=summon&asid=dfbc94fe473f6864d7cf908fe5dda677.

Holm, Henrietta. The Agricultural Economy of Algeria. Washington D.C.: The United States Department of Agriculture, 1911.

Metz, Helen C. Area Handbook Series: Algeria a Country Study. Washington D.C.: PN, 1993.

Saad, Mohammed A., and Margaret Majumdar. Transition and Development in Algeria. Bristol: Intellect Ltd., 2012.

Religion in Algeria

Algeria has a rich history of religious belief that finds itself at the crossroads of two of the major religions today: Islam and Christianity. Delving even further into its history however, the ancients had a particular religious belief outside of these two main pillars.

One of the earliest known people groups of Algeria were the Berbers. These were mostly nomadic people who lived near the coast of North Africa. As much as we can tell, these people were animists and one commentator calls them "pagans": "Assisted by these traits of indigenous manners, we can call to mind ogres and pagans who represent an ancient population, or, more exactly, the secretarians of ancient religion like the Paganism or the Christianity which was maintained on some points of Northern Africa..." (Basset, xvi-xvii) Much of the ancient literature has been contaminated by the Islamic influence around 700 A.D., so while these religious beliefs probably persisted for some time, they were ousted by the dogmatic Muslims which conquered the country. 

But Alegria is the crossroads of two religious main religious beliefs, and the first to appear was Christianity. Rome conquered Algeria during the Punic Wars and it became a colony subservient to that master. When Constantine promoted Christianity as the state's official religion, Christianity was popular in the state. One commentator said, "The new Christian doctrines, which from Carthage radiated rapidly throughout Roman territory, were at once recognised [sic] as a danger to the established order; but there was no sufficient philosophy to oppose them" (Nickerson, 31). Some of the most famous Christian teachers of the early Church lived in Algeria, including Augustine of Hippo. 

This dramatically changed in the 8th century. Islam arose from the Prophet Muhammed in the 7th century A.D. in Arabia. Trade routes were established that took the religion across vast areas in a relatively short amount of time (Isichei, 40). By the 8th century, traders had brought Islam to Algeria. It was widely accepted and several Islamic dynasties ruled Algeria until the 16th century. The Ottoman Turks absorbed parts of North Africa into their empire, the consequence of which was widespread acceptance of Islam. While small pockets of Christianity remain, Islam is the dominant religious belief of Algeria.

Bibliography

Basset, Rene. Moorish Literature. New York, NY: P.F. Collier & Son, 1901.

Isichei, Elizabeth Allo. 2004. The Religious Traditions of Africa : A History. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed September 17, 2016).

Nickerson, Jane. Africa: From Pre-Roman Times to the Present. New York, NY: Devin-Adair, 1961.

Non-Written Sources

Algeria has a rich history of non-written sources. Some of the earliest rock paintings in Africa are located in the Tassili range of the Hoggar Mountains in the central Sahara. One source said of these, "From the point of view of the historian these paintings... are of the utmost value, illuminating the past of the Sahara and going one step further towards the elucidation of the mystery of when, if not why, the region changed from fertility to the sterile sands which have been known through all recorded time" (Nickerson, 6-7).


The Roman period marks a huge transition for the people of Algeria. The Romans changed Algerian society from its largely nomadic roots to a civilized, coherent people group. They also worked to change their culture. Many statues are found in Algeria, although their genesis probably did not originate in Algeria; as one commentator said, the Roman era statues found in Algeria were most likely the result of powerful and wealthy patrons that settled there from Rome (Boissier, 33-34). One particularly elegant statue is found in the Museum of National Antiques of Algeria. The statue features a Roman municipal magistrate made of marble. It was probably from the Constantine period of the Roman Empire. It is unique in the man that it depicts is most likely an African himself and was a magistrate in his ancient hometown, Subzuar.

 

A later piece also comes from the Roman era. In the 4th century, a sarcophagus depicting the seven miracles of Christ was found composed of marble. This demonstrates the heavy influence of Christianity in the formative years of the new millennium in Algeria.



In the 12th century, a group of Islamic Kings, the Berbers, unified North Africa and their movement was called the Almohad Caliphate. This was a critical time in the history of Algeria because it rescinded its Christian heritage in favor of Islam. A silver plate was discovered that dated to the 12th century. It bears an inscription that says, “Praise be to God, Lord of the universe.” Primarily a work of art, it demonstrates the vast changes that occurred in the tumultuous history of Algeria.

 

Bibliography

Boissier, Gaston. Roman Africa: Archaeological Walks in Algeria and Tunis. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1899. Accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002137746;view=1up;seq=7.

National Museum of Antiquities. “National Museum of Antiquities.” Accessed September 9, 2016.http://www.musee-antiquites.art.dz/?action=accueil&lang=fr.

Nickerson, James. Africa: From Pre-Roman Times to the Present. New York: Devin-Adair Company, 1961. Accessed September 9, 2016. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008918313;view=1up;seq=10.

Geographic Features and Location of Algeria

Algeria is located in the northernmost part of Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea in the north and the Sahara Desert in the south. Algeria is one of the largest states in Africa, second only to Sudan with around 919,600 square miles (World Almanac). 40 percent of the total population is concentrated in four cities located primarily in the coastal region: Algiers, the largest city and the capital (latitude 36° N, longitude 3° E),  Constantine (latitude 36° N, longitude 6° E), Annaba (latitude 36° N, longitude 7° E), and Oran (latitude 35° N, longitude 0° W) (Nyrop, 83).

(Coastal region of Algeria)

Being surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea in the north and the Sahara Desert in the south, Algeria has a complex climate. It has four distinct climate zones: the coastal region, the inland hills and plains of the Tell Mountain, the continental climate of the high plateaus and Saharan Atlas ranges, and the desert climate of the Sahara (Nyrop, 68). The coastal region receives much rain during the wet season while also having a relatively small gap in temperatures from summer to winter. The Tell Atlas is farther away from the coast and therefore has average rainfall, snow in the winter, cold winters and very hot summers. The high plateaus also receive frosting and ice during the winters and are hot in the summers. They are more removed from rainfall. Lastly, the Sahara represents extremes of both sides of weather: during the summers, temperatures can reach up to 120°. Very little rainfall occurs in the desert and temperatures drop significantly in the winters.

Besides the Mediterranean Sea, other important geographic features in Algeria are the Tell Atlas Mountains. Because of the mountainous region, this area receives the most rainfall and therefore is most conducive to agriculture. The other mountainous region is the Saharan Atlas which is in the high plateau area of Algeria. Very little agriculture is produced because of the harsh, mountainous area. The Sahara is also a significant geographical area. The Algerian Sahara covers over 800,000 square miles and contains about 500,000 inhabitants (Nyrop, 64).

 

(Tell Atlas Mountain Range)

The vast geographic differences in Algeria have altered its history. The coastal area gave Algeria contact with European nations during the great imperialistic fervor. Along with Morocco and Tunisia, piracy was an integral part of the Algerian economy in the 18^th and 19^th centuries. The Saharan Desert obviously attracted Bedouin tribes and other nomadic peoples moving west from the Middle East. From this area, they brought Islam which is the dominant religious belief in Algeria today. The agriculture of Algeria is made complicated by the little space there is room for cultivating produce. Most of the country is composed of the desert climate and not conducive to producing food. Disease in Algeria is probably less severe than in the tropics of Africa.

Bibliography

Nyrop, Richard. Area Handbook for Algeria. Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1972. Accessed September 2, 2016. http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE|A119451344&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&userGroup=vic_liberty&authCount=1#.

The World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York City: World Almanac Books, 2004. Accessed September 2, 2016.http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?p=ITOF&u=vic_liberty&id=GALE|A119451344&v=2.1&it=r&sid=summon&userGroup=vic_liberty&authCount=1#.